Little Albert and David Reimer: Ethical Analysis

Little Albert and David Reimer: Ethical Analysis Ethics Essay Introduction All psychological studies focusing on human being needs to obtain ethical approval by the Psychology Research Ethics Committee. Psychologist wishing to conduct a research/study must first submit a filled in form of psychology ethics committee application cover page, write up a detail proposal describing the research process and attach any supporting documents. These steps are compulsory prior to research in order to protect participants from inhumane harm. Due to past examples of highly unethical research like the â€Å"Little Albert† experiment and â€Å"David Reimer† experiment, it has triggered psychological societies to issue a code of ethics in psychology which provides ethical guidelines for researchers. The code of ethics includes informed consent, voluntary participation, right to withdraw, accurate reporting, do no harm, debriefing and desensitisation. Experiment 1 – Unethical Reasons The first example of past research that would be considered unethical by today’s guidelines is the â€Å"Little Albert† experiment. The experiment is conducted in 1920 at John’s Hopkins University by behavioural psychologist John B. Watson and his assistant. The purpose of the experiment was to investigate whether fear is something born with or can be learned due to exposure of environmental influences; and if phobia can be developed by classical conditioning. The participant was 9 month old infant, Little Albert. In the experiment, Little Albert was first exposed to various white or furry objects and happenings that usually cause fear. Next, a white lab rat was given to Albert and he showed no fear. Watson then made loud banging sounds behind Albert’s back every time he touched the rat – Little Albert cried. He became upset when he was exposed to the white rat again as he linked the rat with the banging noise produced. First of all, the experiment has breached the â€Å"do no harm† guideline as Little Albert was not protected from psychological harm – the main purpose of the experiment is to test if fear can be developed by classical conditioning. Also, Watson knew that there will be not be sufficient time left to treat any possible fears/harms caused. Secondly, the â€Å"voluntary participation† guideline is breached as Little Albert did not volunteer for the study, he is too young. Little Albert was chosen from the hospital where his mother worked as a wet nurse. She is financially dependent on the hospital for income and feared that she would lose her job if she disagreed Little Albert’s participation. In addition, she received $1 for Little Albert’s participation in the experiment. In a way, she was forced to agree for participation in order to keep her job and due to aid in financial struggles. Thirdly, the â€Å"informed consent† guideline is breached as his mother was never informed about the procedure, the pros cons and withdrawal rights of the experiment. Lastly, the â€Å"desensitisation and debriefing† guideline is breached as there was no removal of ill effects and Little Albert was never treated for his fears as he left the hospital right after the experiment ended. As a result, Little Albert developed fears towards anything that was white fluffy and grown up having a phobia of dogs. Improvements There are guidelines to ensure that the â€Å"Little Albert† experiment could be run ethically. Firstly, the do no harm and desensitisation guideline could be linked together. Watson should have suggested treatment plans to help remove the harm and cause of fear of Little Albert. This is extremely crucial in protecting the participants from future psychological problems that may have a significant impact on their lives. Secondly, Watson should have chosen other babies who didn’t have parents who worked in that hospital, so that they do not feel pressured to accept the request. Also, Watson should not use money to gain agreement for participation. Lastly, Watson should have properly inform Little Albert’s mom about the experiment procedure and make it clear that he had the right to withdraw from the experiment at any time without any problems caused. Experiment 2 – Unethical The second example of past research that would be considered unethical by today’s guidelines is the â€Å"David Reimer† experiment. The experiment is conducted in 1965 at John’s Hopkins Hospital by sexologist Dr Money. The purpose of the experiment was to prove that nurture, instead of nature determines gender identity and sexual orientation. The participant was 22 month old baby, David Reimer. In the experiment, the baby underwent a sex re–assignment surgery where his testes were surgically removed. David (now Brenda) changed his name and was brought up as a female. The plan failed when his family finally revealed her original gender at age 15. First of all, the experiment has breached the â€Å"do no harm† guideline as David Reimer experienced severe psychological harm – he committed suicide at age 38. Also, the experiment has indirectly caused harm to his family: his mom was suicidal, his dad was alcoholic and his twin brother was severely depressed committed suicide at the end. Secondly, the â€Å"voluntary participation† guideline is breached as David Reimer did not volunteer for the study, his parents were equally horrified by the suggestion of a sex change, but eventually agreed to the procedure. Little did they know Dr Money’s real intention – to use David to prove his â€Å"theory of gender neutrality†, which states that gender can be trained by being brought up in an appropriate environment. Thirdly, the â€Å"informed consent† guideline is breached as his parents were not properly informed of the experiment. They were not told what was going on during the kidsâ€⠄¢ yearly meetings with Dr Money. Fourthly, the â€Å"accurate reporting† guideline is breached. Dr Money wrote a report on his study and claimed that the experiment was a huge success and that his theory is supported, which greatly contradicts the data from previous reports. It is clear that the Reimer family were having huge psychological issues – David wasn’t living up to his role as Dr Money had described in his report. Dr Money has falsified the outcome of the experiment. Lastly, the â€Å"withdrawal rights† is breached as David and his twin brother Brian were forced to travel to Baltimore for yearly meetings with Dr Money until they refused (not because they had the right to withdraw, but because they were too frightened to see him) Improvements There are guidelines to ensure that the â€Å"David Reimer† experiment could be run ethically. Firstly, Dr Money should have suggested a psychiatrist to evaluate David and provide counselling treatment to aid in his acceptance of his true gender. Dr Money should have suggested treatment centres for the Reimer family to visit to remove all negative effects caused by the hidden truth of David’s real gender. Secondly, Dr Money should have debrief the Reimer family of his real intentions of using David as an experimental object is due to selfishness, instead of persuading them to believe that a sex change is indeed the best advice that Dr Money can give. Thirdly, Dr Money should have informed David’s parents of what he did during the yearly meetings. In those meetings, he frightened the twins by using disgusting and inappropriate ways to make a clear cut difference between feminine and masculine. He made David and his twin perform sexual acts and took photos of them naked. Lastly, Dr Money should have accurately report his experiment results. Many textbooks were re-written just to publish his theory that he stated as supported, which in reality just clearly contradicts the whole experiment result when David committed suicide due to depression. Conclusion All in all, when there weren’t any ethical guidelines in the past, unethical experiments can be conducted by psychologists for selfish and illegitimate reasons. It is due to such unethical experiments that urged psychological societies to issue a code of ethics in order to protect the participants from inhumane harm. All psychologist have to strictly follow the guidelines in order to obtain approval to conduct their intended experiment. Due to the lack of guidelines in the past, Little Albert was psychologically harmed that he developed a phobia which was not treated. David Reimer was also psychologically harmed as he was not informed of his original gender until 15 years later where his whole family broke down psychologically. Previously, â€Å"she† was so confused and was often teased about her questionable gender identity, which also impacted on her self-esteem. In reality, both experiments could be run ethically even if a code of ethics was not issued in the early days. However, this is dependent on the degree of common sense and humaneness the psychologist designs the experiment. Referencing Introduces the reader to the fact that psychological research today must follow ethical guidelines. Briefly states what these guidelines are. Explains that there are examples of past research that would breach today’s guidelines. Describes an example of past research that would be considered unethical by today’s guidelines. Explains why it would be classed as unethical i.e. which guidelines are breached and how. Makes specific suggestions as to how the research could be run ethically. If this is not possible, then argues why not. Describes a second example of past research that would be considered unethical by today’s guidelines.. Explains why it would be classed as unethical i.e. which guidelines are breached and how. Makes specific suggestions as to how the second example of research could be run ethically. If this is not possible, then argues why not. Sums up main points of the essay (does not introduce any new information or ideas). Harvard in-text referencing and a full reference list is essential

Pascals Wager and Global Warming :: Climate Change, Greenhouse Gases

Since measurements began in 1958 -- and it can be assumed to have been the case since the industrial revolution -- emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere has risen steadily as a result of the burning of fossil fuels (Quay, pp 2344). Although there is much argument over the implications of increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, there are several points that almost all scientists would agree on: firstly, carbon dioxide acts to absorb radiated heat; if present in our atmosphere will do just that to some extent. Second, the concentration of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere is rising. Third, the temperature of the planet is rising - although the amount of this increase and the causes of this rise are subject to disagreement (Philander, pp 193). When I was at school in Vermont, one of my teachers explained to me Pascal's Wager. According to this teacher, the philosopher and mathematician Pascal had tried to establish the costs and benefits of believing in God. He saw it in this way: you can either believe in God or not. If you do believe in God, and there is in fact no God, then you will perhaps have spent some extra energy unnecessarily abstaining from certain pleasures and wasting your Sunday mornings in Church, but overall you did not give up too much. And, it could be argued, you may have actually treated your fellow men more kindly then you would have otherwise. If, however, there is a God, and you believed in him, then you get eternal salvation. On the other hand, you could choose not to believe in God. If there is no God, then you are fine. You can sin all you like, you can allow yourself transgressions and forbidden acts, and the only punishments you will face will be those of this life. If, however, you lived thusly and there is a God, then you face an eternity of torture and unbearable misery. So, Pascal reasoned, one would do best to believe in God and act accordingly. That way, if you're wrong, the worst thing that could happen is that you were more pious and caring then you may have otherwise been. If you do not believe in God and you turn out to be wrong, the risks become terrifying. My teacher suggested that I apply this same logic to global warming. It is a matter of playing the odds.

Finance and Short Term Debt

EncanaCost of Capital Before calculating the cost of capital I'll calculate cost of equity and cost of dept and capital structure for ENCANA: 1 Cost of Debt: ENCANA cost of debt included cost on short term debt , long term debt and publicity traded interest amount 1. 1 Short term Debt: Short term obligations (Ex. 1) = $ 1425 million Interest Rate (Ex. 1) = 3. 52% Total amount for short term debt interest = 1425 ? 3. 52% = 50. 16 million 1. 2 Long term Debt: Other long term liabilities (Ex. 1) = $1278 Interest rate (Prime rate charged) = 5. 25%Total amount for long term debt interest = 1278 ? 5. 25% = 67. 095 million 1. 3 Publicity traded: Publicity traded interest = total interest – (short term debt interest amount + long term debt interest amount) Publicity traded interest = 524 – ( 50. 16 + 67. 095) = 406. 75 million Interest rate on publicity traded = Publicity traded interest ? L. T debt on publicity traded Interest rate on publicity traded = 406. 75 ? 5351 = 7. 6% Cost on debt = Weight of long term debt ? Rate of interest on L. T debt + Weight of short term debt ? Rate of interest on S.T debt + Weight of publicity traded ? rate of interest on publicity traded = 1278/8054* ? 5. 25 + 1425/8054 ? 3. 52 + 5351/8054 ? 7. 60 = 0. 833 + 0. 622 + 5. 049 = 6. 5% *The amount $8054 is total amount of debt given in Exhibit 3 1. 4 Determining Tax rate: Tax rate for ENCANA can be determined as follow: Tax Rate= T= Net earnings before interest and tax ? tax expense T= 1260 ? 4089 = 30. 81% 1. 5 Cost of debt after tax: Cost of debt after tax = cost of debt before tax (1- Tax Rate) Cost of debt after tax = 6. 5% ( 1- 30. 81%) = 4. % ==; rate of debt (rd) 2 Cost of equity: There are following two ways to calculate ENCANA's cost of equity : 1. Using SML equation 2. Calculating cost of equity by dividend growth model 2. 1 Calculation of cost of equity for ENCANA by using SML equation: rs = r* + MRP (b) r* = 4. 20 % (Govt. long Term Treasury Bills) rm = 13. 9% (S &P arithmetic average return) MRP = rm – r = 13. 9-4. 20 = 9. 7 Beta = 1. 27 rs = 4. 20 + 9. 7 *1. 27 rs = 16. 519 % 2. 1 Calculation of cost of equity for ENCANA by using dividend growth model: rs = (D1/ Po – F) + gWhere: D1= next year dividend Po = current price of share in market F = Floatation Cost Growth from past data: Year | Dividend per share | Growth * | 2002 | 0. 2 | | 2003 | 0. 15 | -25% | 2004 | 0. 2 | 33. 3% | 2005 | 0. 28 | 40% | *Growth rate is calculated as: 0. 15/0. 2= 0. 75-1 = -0. 25? 100 =-25% 0. 2/0. 15= 1. 33-1= 0. 33 ? 100 = 33. 3% 0. 28/0. 2= 1. 4-1 =0. 4 ? 100 = 40% Average Growth= -25 + 33. 3 + 40 = 16. 1% rs = (Do (1+ g) / Po – F) + g rs = 0. 28 (1+0. 1611) / 56. 75 (1- 0. 05) + 0. 1611 rs = 0. 25108/53. 9125 +0. 1611 rs = 16. 713% Average rs = (16. 713+16. 519)/2 = 16. 616% WACC: The WACC equation  is the cost of each capital component  multiplied by its proportional weight and then summing:   WACC = rD  (1-  Tc  )*(  Dà ‚  /  V  )+  rE  *(  E  /  V  ) Where, Re = cost of equity Rd = cost of debt E = market value of the firm's equity D =  market value of the firm's debt V = Total Capital = E + D E/V = we = percentage of financing by equity D/V = wd= percentage of financing by debt T =  corporate tax rate By putting Values:Total Equity= E = no of shares * price of shares = 854. 9 * 56. 75 = $48515. 575 million Total Capital = Equity + Debt = 48515. 575+ 8054 = $56596. 575 Million WACC = wd * rd + we * re = 8054/56596. 575 * 4. 5 + 48515. 575/56596. 575 * 16. 616 = 0. 6404 + 14. 2436 = 14. 884% ENCANA should accept this project which will give a return of more than 14. 884%, because ENCANA has to pay their investors a return of 14. 884 and this will also generate profit which can be utilized as retained earnings and increase growth of its dividend.

Importance of Symbolism in What We Talk About When We...

Symbols are an essential part of daily life, since they help to express ideas without the need of a detailed explanation; traffic signs informing drivers without short paragraphs being posted in their place, facial gestures expressing feelings without having to describe them verbally, just to name a common couple. Likewise, symbols are a crucial part of a literary work, helping the author subtly incorporate concepts throughout the work. An author will deliberately incorporate a symbol into his or her literary work, which alone would mean nothing, but in context carries out a point the author is trying to make. What We Talk About When We Talk About Love is a short story about four friends trying to find the true meaning of love, trying†¦show more content†¦Just like an alcoholic has a hard time admitting alcoholism, it is hard for a person in love to accept and fight against a spouse abusing him or her. For example, in What We Talk About When We Talk About Love, Terri shares her experience in her previous marriage, He beat me up one night. He dragged me around the living room by my ankles. He kept saying, ‘I love you, I love youÂ…, (Carver 763) where she explains how her husband would beat her and abuse her physically, but she still considered it being love. Carver also emphasizes the contradictions within the characters themselves in the story, which illustrates the uncertainty of love, and how there is not a clearly defined approach to understanding it. Returning to the topic of Terris previous marriage, Mel, her current husband, complains about his failure to understand how she could refer to that abusive relationship as love. However, later on when she corrects him while he is talking, he turns to her and asks her to shut up (Carver 767). Another important contradiction which takes place throughout the entire story, is how the four friends are discussing a subject which they all have had bad experiences with, since they have all been divorc ed and remarried. The contradictions throughout Carvers story symbolize how love can also contradict itself, and trying to understand love is impossible since so many particular cases can negate specific examples of love. Moreover,Show MoreRelatedEssay on Araby and Cask of Amontillado: a Comparison1002 Words   |  5 Pagesof another person. I will be talking about and comparing the different elements of each story and their relevance. Both stories take place in different countries. In â€Å"Araby† the story is about a boy from Ireland. The country itself doesn’t have too much importance. The story would be almost the same if the boy was from America. When the main character visits the bazaar is when the setting matters. 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